Social Cognitive Theory
Now where do you suppose the child learned those behaviors?
4.16 Explain how social learning theory challenges the assumptions of behaviorism.
A major challenge to behaviorism came from studies on observational learning conducted by Albert Bandura and his colleagues in the 1960s. A central finding of this research was that people could learn new actions merely by observing others perform them.
Observers did not have to perform the actions at the time of learning. Reinforcement was not necessary for learning to occur. These findings disputed central assumptions of conditioning theories. In addition, the nature of such modeling also affected learning. For example, learners who were presented with models who encouraged and supported the efforts of viewers (in experimental cases, the learners were essentially “viewers” because they only watched models…they did not interact with them) showed greater changes in the behaviors modeled.
Social cognitive theory supports the idea that much human learning occurs in a social environment. By observing others, people acquire knowledge, rules, skills, strategies, beliefs, and attitudes. Individuals also learn from models the usefulness and appropriateness of behaviors and the consequences of modeled behaviors, and they act in accordance with beliefs about their capabilities and the expected outcomes of their actions. To this point, models can significantly affect feelings of confidence and self-efficacy* in learners, which research suggests has an impact on choice of tasks to engage in during instruction, persistence, effort, and ultimately skill acquisition.
A major challenge to behaviorism came from studies on observational learning conducted by Albert Bandura and his colleagues in the 1960s. A central finding of this research was that people could learn new actions merely by observing others perform them.
Observers did not have to perform the actions at the time of learning. Reinforcement was not necessary for learning to occur. These findings disputed central assumptions of conditioning theories. In addition, the nature of such modeling also affected learning. For example, learners who were presented with models who encouraged and supported the efforts of viewers (in experimental cases, the learners were essentially “viewers” because they only watched models…they did not interact with them) showed greater changes in the behaviors modeled.
Social cognitive theory supports the idea that much human learning occurs in a social environment. By observing others, people acquire knowledge, rules, skills, strategies, beliefs, and attitudes. Individuals also learn from models the usefulness and appropriateness of behaviors and the consequences of modeled behaviors, and they act in accordance with beliefs about their capabilities and the expected outcomes of their actions. To this point, models can significantly affect feelings of confidence and self-efficacy* in learners, which research suggests has an impact on choice of tasks to engage in during instruction, persistence, effort, and ultimately skill acquisition.
4.17 Define self-efficacy and explain how it contributes to personal agency.
Self-efficacy (efficacy expectations) refers to personal beliefs about one’s capabilities to learn or perform actions at designated levels. Self-efficacy is not the same as knowing what to do. In gauging self-efficacy, individuals assess their skills and their capabilities to translate those skills into actions. Self-efficacy is a key to promoting a sense of agency in people that they can influence their lives.
Agency is the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices, as well as feeling as if their choices have influence in their environment (their life).
4.18 Explain and identify examples of the following components of social cognitive theory: reciprocal interactions, enactive and vicarious learning, learning versus performance, and the role of self-regulation.
Central to social learning theory is the addition of a critical component in the relationship between a behavior to be learned, and environmental input/stimuli. Behaviorism (and many cognitivist learning models) emphasize two fundamental elements in learning:
Self-efficacy (efficacy expectations) refers to personal beliefs about one’s capabilities to learn or perform actions at designated levels. Self-efficacy is not the same as knowing what to do. In gauging self-efficacy, individuals assess their skills and their capabilities to translate those skills into actions. Self-efficacy is a key to promoting a sense of agency in people that they can influence their lives.
Agency is the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices, as well as feeling as if their choices have influence in their environment (their life).
4.18 Explain and identify examples of the following components of social cognitive theory: reciprocal interactions, enactive and vicarious learning, learning versus performance, and the role of self-regulation.
Central to social learning theory is the addition of a critical component in the relationship between a behavior to be learned, and environmental input/stimuli. Behaviorism (and many cognitivist learning models) emphasize two fundamental elements in learning:
But social cognitive theory includes a third, essential component addressing personal beliefs about perceived capabilities to organize and implement actions necessary for learning:
Social cognitive theory makes assumptions about learning and the performance of behaviors in the following specific areas:
Reciprocal Interactions
Bandura suggests that three important reciprocal relationships exist in human learning environments (triadic reciprocality):
Reciprocal Interactions
Bandura suggests that three important reciprocal relationships exist in human learning environments (triadic reciprocality):
1. The Person (i.e. perceived self-efficacy) and their environment
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Example: A person with low self-efficacy might show it through their behavior, which might influence how other people in their environment behave toward them, which reinforces their feelings of self-efficacy.
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2. The Person (i.e. perceived self-efficacy) and their behavior
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Example: A person with low self-efficacy might work really hard one week and get a good grade on a math quiz (behavior). The good grade makes them feel more efficacious about math which may impact subsequent studying and quiz scores (behaviors).
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3. Environment (stimuli and behavior)
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Example: A teacher is presenting an import example on the board (environment), and when she checks the class for understanding…she hears crickets (behaviors). She then changes her example (environment) and hopes for a better response from the class.
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Enactive and Vicarious Learning
Enactive learning involves learning from the consequences of one’s actions. Behaviors that result in successful consequences are retained; those that lead to failures are refined or discarded. But unlike behaviorism, social cognitive theory suggests that behavioral consequences serve as sources of information and perhaps motivation, rather than reinforcing stimuli.
Vicarious learning represents a very common approach to learning among humans (and, apparently, apes as well as other mammals). It involves learning by observing or listening to models who are live (appear in person), symbolic or nonhuman (e.g., televised talking animals, cartoon characters), electronic (e.g., television, computer), or in print (e.g., books, magazines). Learning complex skills typically occurs through a combination of observation and performance. Learners first observe models explain and demonstrate skills, then they practice them. This is consistent with the strategies for learning complex skills in most instructional models developed by cognitive psychologists.
Learning versus Performance
Social cognitive theory makes a clear distinction between the processes of learning and the processes of performance. Whereas behaviorists consider all learning to be a performance (observable change in behavior), social cognitivists suggest that the process of learning can be very different from performances, and not readily observed. For example, the work of Tolman on latency learning demonstrates such phenomenon.
Although much learning occurs by doing, we learn a great deal by observing (social cognition). Whether we ever perform what we learn depends on factors such as our motivation, interest, incentives to perform, perceived need, physical state, social pressures, and type of competing activities. Reinforcement, or the belief that it will be forthcoming, affects performance rather than learning.
Role of Self-Regulation
A key assumption of social cognitive theory is that people desire to control the events that affect their lives and to perceive themselves as agents…to have agency in their environment.
Key processes involved in regulating feelings of control include:
An essential instructional strategy designed to support self-regulation is allowing students to have choices (or believe they have choices) throughout a learning experience.
Enactive learning involves learning from the consequences of one’s actions. Behaviors that result in successful consequences are retained; those that lead to failures are refined or discarded. But unlike behaviorism, social cognitive theory suggests that behavioral consequences serve as sources of information and perhaps motivation, rather than reinforcing stimuli.
Vicarious learning represents a very common approach to learning among humans (and, apparently, apes as well as other mammals). It involves learning by observing or listening to models who are live (appear in person), symbolic or nonhuman (e.g., televised talking animals, cartoon characters), electronic (e.g., television, computer), or in print (e.g., books, magazines). Learning complex skills typically occurs through a combination of observation and performance. Learners first observe models explain and demonstrate skills, then they practice them. This is consistent with the strategies for learning complex skills in most instructional models developed by cognitive psychologists.
Learning versus Performance
Social cognitive theory makes a clear distinction between the processes of learning and the processes of performance. Whereas behaviorists consider all learning to be a performance (observable change in behavior), social cognitivists suggest that the process of learning can be very different from performances, and not readily observed. For example, the work of Tolman on latency learning demonstrates such phenomenon.
Although much learning occurs by doing, we learn a great deal by observing (social cognition). Whether we ever perform what we learn depends on factors such as our motivation, interest, incentives to perform, perceived need, physical state, social pressures, and type of competing activities. Reinforcement, or the belief that it will be forthcoming, affects performance rather than learning.
Role of Self-Regulation
A key assumption of social cognitive theory is that people desire to control the events that affect their lives and to perceive themselves as agents…to have agency in their environment.
Key processes involved in regulating feelings of control include:
- Self-efficacy
- Clarifying outcome expectations
- Understanding the value of what is being learned
- Goal setting
- Self-evaluation of goal progress
- Cognitive modeling and self-instruction
An essential instructional strategy designed to support self-regulation is allowing students to have choices (or believe they have choices) throughout a learning experience.
4.19 Describe the effects that goals have on behavior, specifically the goal properties of specificity, proximity and difficulty.
Humans are Goal-Oriented
Recall that self-efficacy refers to personal beliefs about one’s capabilities to learn or perform actions at designated levels. Individual self-efficacy for specific skills is regularly defined and refined as people evaluate their progress (formally or informally) toward accomplishing specific goals. People, as with most complex organisms, appear to be goal-oriented.
A goal reflects one’s purpose and refers to quantity, quality, or rate of performance. Goal setting involves establishing a standard or objective to serve as the aim of one’s actions. People can set their own goals or goals can be established by others (parents, teachers, supervisors).
Prerequisite to evaluating progress toward any goal is clearly identifying and understanding the goal. Goals generally include three properties that can have a dramatic influence over feelings of self-efficacy within a learning environment:
Humans are Goal-Oriented
Recall that self-efficacy refers to personal beliefs about one’s capabilities to learn or perform actions at designated levels. Individual self-efficacy for specific skills is regularly defined and refined as people evaluate their progress (formally or informally) toward accomplishing specific goals. People, as with most complex organisms, appear to be goal-oriented.
A goal reflects one’s purpose and refers to quantity, quality, or rate of performance. Goal setting involves establishing a standard or objective to serve as the aim of one’s actions. People can set their own goals or goals can be established by others (parents, teachers, supervisors).
Prerequisite to evaluating progress toward any goal is clearly identifying and understanding the goal. Goals generally include three properties that can have a dramatic influence over feelings of self-efficacy within a learning environment:
Finally, a word about modeling…
4.20 Identify strategies for maximizing the potential effects of observational learning from modeling.
Modeling is a critical component in social cognitive theory. It refers to behavioral, cognitive, and affective changes derived from observing one or more models (observational learning). Observational learning occurs when learners display new patterns of behavior that, prior to exposure to the modeled behaviors, the learners could not demonstrate.
Models can maximize the potential effects of observational learning by addressing the following key processes:
4.20 Identify strategies for maximizing the potential effects of observational learning from modeling.
Modeling is a critical component in social cognitive theory. It refers to behavioral, cognitive, and affective changes derived from observing one or more models (observational learning). Observational learning occurs when learners display new patterns of behavior that, prior to exposure to the modeled behaviors, the learners could not demonstrate.
Models can maximize the potential effects of observational learning by addressing the following key processes:
Summary (the course so far....)
Up to this point in the course, the concept of learning has been defined different, based on different theoretical perspectives (including my own). Here is an update on where we are so far in light of course objective 1.8 (Categorize definitions of learning based on alternate theoretical frameworks):
How do you think a social cognitivist theorist would define learning?