Instructional Technology


I earned my doctorate in the field of instructional technology from Arizona State University. At the time I was a graduate student, I was also a science teacher in a very large urban school district located in a Phoenix suburb. The program was part of the College of Education's educational psychology department. I was interested in studying Instructional Technology because my favorite part of teaching was designing creative, important and effective learning experiences, and I was intrigued about the possibility of exploring and applying learning sciences to my own practice. It was as a student in the program that I discovered the value of instructional technology as way to learn and apply fundamental principles of learning to the improvement of my own teaching, as well as the practice of other science educators. The following notes constitute my general reflections on the subject, as such the objectives for this part of the course are not directly supported by information in the course text.
​The final part of this course presents some basic information about a field of study that may surprise you: instructional technology. The name is a bit misleading, though. When people hear the word “technology” they tend to think of things like computers. But in this case the word “technology” refers to a broader definition: the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes (solve problems or invent useful tools). This is precisely why the course finishes with a brief overview of the field of instructional technology, because up to this point in course you have been presented with experiences designed to increase your literacy in scientific knowledge associated with learning. But there is very good information presented in the course text about how this knowledge can be applied within the professional practice of educators, and this will be an important part of the final project in this course. In the project, you are asked to define a learning-related issues that may (or may not) be part of your research agenda. You will then analyze your learning-related issue and identify specific variables and determine applicable learning science principles that define your variables as well as reflect on how these principles affect instructional variables. This is where the rubber of learning theory meets the road, so to speak.
7.1 Describe the field of instructional technology.
​"Education" as a field of study is very broad. A person studying education might be interested in its history (the history of education within the history of the world, or just the history of education in the United States). Or a person might be interested in the foundations of education, including the philosophies, theories and models that describe how and why education looks the way it does today. Or a person might be interested in learning more about the methods used to define instruction for specific subject or curricular areas, such as mathematics, reading and science. Or a person might be interested in learning more about learning itself, examining the breakthroughs in psychology that explain various aspects of human learning. Or a person might be interested in learning more about the media (materials) used to help facilitate learning. All of these different aspects of education have their own fields of study, with names like "Educational Psychology," "Educational Foundations," "Curriculum and Instruction," and "Educational Media."
 
There is a lesser-known subfield of education (actually a subfield of educational psychology) that focuses on factors that influence the development of effective learning experiences in general. This is the field of "Instructional Technology,"
 
Instructional Technology can be described as a field of education dedicated to “…the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources” (Januszewski & Molenda, 2008).
 
The image below reflects the general scope of Instructional Technology as a field of education:

​The goal of Instructional Technology as a field of education is to develop technologies (methods as well as media) that can improve the effectiveness of learning experiences. Historically, instructional technology has focused on the following:

  1. The study of how different types of media (physical elements within the environment which communicate messages) can be used for instructional purposes.
  2. The development and evaluation of systematic approaches to the design, development and implementation of instructional material. 
  3. Development of strategies and methods for individualized, personalized learning.  This isn't to say that IT has advocated complete individualized instruction; rather, IT continues to emphasize the importance of individual learner characteristics within the process of structuring effective learning environments.  Instruction doesn't address "classes," though it may address groups of individuals.

​7.2 Differentiate between definitions and examples of learning and instruction.
​Recall that learning can be defined in different ways depending on your educational framework:
​Instruction is arranging an environment to maximize the probability that specific knowledge, skills, or attitudes will be acquired by those involved in experiences within the environment. Such environments usually include a variety of media presenting a variety of information types (teacher, textbooks, models, posters, other students, etc.).
7.3  Define instructional media.
Media (Medium is the singular) represent the physical elements within the environment that communicate messages (present stimuli).  Instructional or educational media represent media designed or used to deliver messages that can contribute to learning (change behavior).  In a classroom, media represent almost every physical element within the walls of the room, including people. 
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7.4 Define and differentiate between external and internal interactions. 
External Interaction =  The degree to which human input influences (changes) the messages presented from external media.
 
Internal Interaction =  Changes in cognitive knowledge structures and processes resulting from the interchange between new information (received via media) and previously-existing information/knowledge structures.
​Some media are, by their very nature, more interactive than others.  For example, a YouTube video constitutes a medium with a relatively low degree of interactivity because the messages are presented in a fairly linear fashion.  Stopping and starting the messages is about all that is typically done with a video (although the ability to fast-forward, reverse, and access specific parts of the video does increase the interactivity a bit).  In contrast, a multimedia computer-delivered program can have a high degree of interactivity because a user can influence or change the messages presented on the computer screen in many different ways, resulting in many different types of messages presented.  Why might this be important?  Look at Sherman’s definition for the term “learning.”

7.5 Describe factors affecting how an individual learns from instruction.
The following list represents important factors affecting how a person learns from a particular arrangement of the environment.  This isn’t THE list (I don’t think THE list exists), just important factors.  Each factor is classified as being “internal” to the learner, or “external” (part of the instructional environment).
 
  • Cognitive abilities and developmental level of the learner [internal]
  • Previous experiences of the learner [internal]
  • Instructional components and conditions present within the context (i.e. type and amount of practice with feedback) [external]
  • Degree of message abstraction [external]
  • Perceived relationship, if any, between verbal and visual stimuli [external and internal]
  • Clarity and effectiveness of messages presented (i.e. examples, nonexamples) [external]
  • Amount, type and rate of information presented at any given time [external]
  • Amount and type of support mechanisms (scaffolds) accessible throughout the learning experience [external]
  • Motivational strategies integrated into the learning experience [external]
  • Type and degree of interactions possible with instructional media present [external]
  • Social interaction within the learning context [external]
  • Intrinsic, personal motivational level or “state” [internal]
  • Overall instructional context. [external]

7.6 Identify and describe instructional models informed by different learning theories and frameworks.
The goal of instructional technology is to maximize the effectiveness of learning experiences. Models of instructional design are grounded in research-support principles. Once such instructional model is Gagne’s conditions for learning, presented in detail in Act 2.
 
This objective will not be measured on the exam, but you will discover and construct knowledge related to this objective in the final course project.
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​7.7 Define andragogy and identify factors that affect the design of instructional for adult learners.
​As educational leaders, you likely need to apply learning theory to the development of effective instruction for adult learners.
 
Most of the learning theories developed throughout the history of educational psychology have focused on how learning occurs in animals and children. You are likely familiar with the term pedagogy which is used synonymously with teaching or education, but in fact it is specific to the methods and practices of helping children learn. Andragogy constitutes the methods and practices used to effectively help adults learn new things. The most well-defined theory of andragogy was proposed by Malcolm Knowles. He based his theory on an examination of psychology literature as well as his own research with adult learners.
 
Knowles’ theory of andragogy attempts to redefine learning principles specific to adult learning. Knowles’ theory of andragogy makes the following assumptions about the design of learning:
 
  1. Adults need to know why they need to learn something
  2. Adults need to learn experientially
  3. Adults approach learning as problem-solving
  4. Adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value.
 
In practical terms, andragogy means that instruction for adults needs to focus more on the process and less on the content being taught. Strategies such as case studies, role playing, simulations, and self-evaluation are most useful. Instructors adopt a role of facilitator or resource rather than lecturer or grader.
 
Basic Principles of Andragogy instructional design:
 
  • Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.
  • Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities.
  • Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life.
  • Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented*.
 
 
*Except when you are a doctoral student in a program with Greg Sherman as one of your instructors who feels you need to establish a fundamental baseline of knowledge defining your field of study.


The following infographic provides a good summary of Knowles' theory of andragogy: 
Questions?  Email Greg Sherman.