Constructivism
Introduction
One of my favorite things about Pablo Picasso’s art is his range of style. You can find examples of his paintings in the style of realism, pointillism, cubism, abstract…to name a few. These styles apply to other media he worked with as well, including sculptures, ceramics, drawings, and even rugs. His range of style is used to introduce the learning framework of constructivism because it is best understood through a much wider range of assumptions and perspectives about learning that the frameworks of behaviorism and cognitivism.
What is constructivism?
If you recall, behaviorism characterizes learning as the consequence of stimulus-response associations and connections. Stimuli represent information that an organism receives from the environment. Cognitivism, on the other hand characterizes learning as a consequence of mentally processing information received from the environment (stimuli).
Both these frameworks make the same general assumptions about the nature of stimuli; namely, that when information from the environment is perceived and attended to, it can cause learning subconsciously (through conditioning) or consciously (through processing). But neither framework adequately accounts for the possibility or probability that the meaning of information perceived is an important component in how people learn, and meaning, like the beauty in art, is in the eye of the beholder. Well technically, the brain. Constructivism acknowledges that the meaning of information might be wholly defined by the development level of an individual in concert with the overall context in which the individual perceives and attends to it.
Constructivism also differs from behaviorism and cognitivism because it is not a framework that is fundamentally based on theories of learning. It is more of an epistemology; a belief about how we know what we think we know.
This part of the course presents some basic information and examples associated with constructivism. It focuses on the work of two very important developmental psychologists who DID define theories of learning that support the constructivist perspective: Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. In addition to defining a constructivist framework through the lens of developmental psychology, some specific constructivist instructional models are summarized in an effort to help operationalize the constructivism construct. Overlaps between constructivism and cognitivism are also identified.
One of my favorite things about Pablo Picasso’s art is his range of style. You can find examples of his paintings in the style of realism, pointillism, cubism, abstract…to name a few. These styles apply to other media he worked with as well, including sculptures, ceramics, drawings, and even rugs. His range of style is used to introduce the learning framework of constructivism because it is best understood through a much wider range of assumptions and perspectives about learning that the frameworks of behaviorism and cognitivism.
What is constructivism?
If you recall, behaviorism characterizes learning as the consequence of stimulus-response associations and connections. Stimuli represent information that an organism receives from the environment. Cognitivism, on the other hand characterizes learning as a consequence of mentally processing information received from the environment (stimuli).
Both these frameworks make the same general assumptions about the nature of stimuli; namely, that when information from the environment is perceived and attended to, it can cause learning subconsciously (through conditioning) or consciously (through processing). But neither framework adequately accounts for the possibility or probability that the meaning of information perceived is an important component in how people learn, and meaning, like the beauty in art, is in the eye of the beholder. Well technically, the brain. Constructivism acknowledges that the meaning of information might be wholly defined by the development level of an individual in concert with the overall context in which the individual perceives and attends to it.
Constructivism also differs from behaviorism and cognitivism because it is not a framework that is fundamentally based on theories of learning. It is more of an epistemology; a belief about how we know what we think we know.
This part of the course presents some basic information and examples associated with constructivism. It focuses on the work of two very important developmental psychologists who DID define theories of learning that support the constructivist perspective: Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. In addition to defining a constructivist framework through the lens of developmental psychology, some specific constructivist instructional models are summarized in an effort to help operationalize the constructivism construct. Overlaps between constructivism and cognitivism are also identified.
5.1 Define constructivism as a construct and describe learning from a constructivist perspective.
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Constructivism is a belief that learning takes place in contexts and that learners form or construct meaning (knowledge) to, and understanding of, the information (stimuli) they receive as a function of previous experience and immediate experiences in situations.
It is important to note that believing learners construct their own meaning to external stimuli is a very difficult proposition to falsify. How could you attempt to prove that people don’t construct their own meaning to their reality? Since it is difficult, if not impossible to falsify the constructivist notion of knowledge creation, it cannot be regarded as a theory of learning. This doesn’t mean it may not be true…just that it is not a good theory. |
5.2 Compare/contrast constructivism with behaviorism and cognitivism.
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A key assumption of constructivism is that people are active learners and develop
knowledge for themselves. Constructivism contrasts with behaviorist conditioning theories primarily in the consequence of environmental interactions. Both classical and operant conditioning theories view learning as an unconscious response to stimuli. Constructionism is similar to many cognitive theories in that people are conscious, active participants in the promotion of their own learning. Similar to information processing models, constructivism places the locus of learning within the mind, but it differs from information processing because it emphasizes the role that context plays in attending to, perceiving and processing information. Information processing downplays the importance of context once environmental inputs are received. Constructivism does share similar assumptions with social cognitive theory; namely, that persons, behaviors, and environments interact in reciprocal fashion as part of the overall learning context. 
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5.3 Distinguish between definitions and examples of exogenous, dialectical and endogenous constructivist perspectives.
5.3 Distinguish between definitions and examples of exogenous, dialectical and endogenous constructivist perspectives.
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5.4 Define situated cognition and explain how it differs from traditional information processing models.
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A core premise of constructivism is that cognitive processes (including thinking and learning) are situated (located) in physical and social contexts.
Situated cognition (or situated learning) refers to a belief that cognitive processing isn’t just influenced by context defined by environmental factors. Cognitive processing occurs between the learner and their environment. Interactions between learners and their environment (all the factors that provide context, including social interactions) ARE the processing. This is a fundamental departure from information processing models that depict all processing as occurring within the mind itself. |
Jean Piaget
1896 - 1980
1896 - 1980
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As an ex biology teacher, I have always really appreciated the work of Jean Piaget (more about this later). Piaget began his professional career as a biologist, specifically studying mollusks. But his interest in science and the history of science soon overtook his interest in snails and clams. As he delved deeper into the thought-processes of doing science, he became interested in the nature of scientific thinking, specifically how people develop and form their abilities to think scientifically.
According to Piaget, cognitive development depends on four factors:
The first three are self-explanatory, but the equilibration requires some elaboration and clarity. |
5.5 Define equilibration and explain the role of assimilation and accommodation in equilibration.
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Equilibration refers to a biological drive to produce an optimal state of equilibrium (or adaptation) between cognitive structures and the environment. Equilibration is the central factor and the motivating force behind cognitive development. It coordinates the actions of the other three factors and makes internal mental structures and external environmental reality consistent with each other.
As scientific thinking began to refocus Piaget’s personal inquiry about the natural world, he turned his attention to his own children (he had three). He observed that when his children were infants, they demonstrated certain skills regarding objects in their environment. These were simple motor skills (“sensorimotor” in his view), but they directed the way in which the infants explored their environment and, consequently, how they gained more knowledge of the world and more sophisticated exploratory skills. He called these skills schemas. For example, an infant knows how to grab his favorite rattle and thrust it into his mouth. He’s got that schema down pat. When he comes across some other object -- say mom’s iPhone (OK…no iPhones in Piaget’s day!), he easily learns to transfer his “grab and thrust” schema to the new object. This Piaget called assimilation |
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Assimilation refers to fitting external reality to the existing cognitive structure.
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When infants come across other objects again, say electrical cords, they will try the old schema of grab and thrust. This will likely work poorly with the new object based on the reinforcements provided in the infants’ environment (i.e. caregivers pulling the cords away and perhaps yelling or striking). So the schema adapts to the new object. This is called accommodation, specifically accommodating an old schema to a new object (anything that looks, feels, smells and tastes like an electrical cord does not go into mouth).
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Accommodation refers to changing internal structures (schemas) to provide consistency with external reality.
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Assimilation and accommodation work like pendulum swings at advancing our understanding of the world and our competency in it. According to Piaget, they are directed at a balance between the structure of the mind and the environment, at a certain congruency between the two, that would indicate that you have a good (or at least good-enough) model of the universe. This ideal state is equilibrium.
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In Leo Lionni's book Fish is Fish, a tadpole develops into a frog and hops into life on land. He returns to tell his friend the minnow, who developed into a fish, about the world he discovered. But fish has never been on land, and every animal (including humans) that the frog tells the fish about just look like fish animals in the fish's mind. This would be an example of assimilation, not accommodation. The fish's schema about animals has not grown beyond....fish!
5.6 Describe Piaget’s developmental stages and categorize behaviors/thinking into the appropriate stage.
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As Piaget continued his investigation of children, he noted that there were periods where assimilation dominated, periods where accommodation dominated, and periods of relative equilibrium, and that these periods were similar among all the children he looked at in their nature and their timing. And so he developed the idea of stages of cognitive development. Each level or stage is defined by how children view the world.
The following information summarizes these stages, presenting a concise description of the characteristics of people in each stage. |
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The Sensorimotor Stage
Birth-2 Years Old As the name implies, this stage involves infants using their senses and motor abilities to understand the world, beginning with reflexes and ending with complex combinations of sensorimotor skills. Actions are spontaneous, and understanding is rooted in these present actions. |
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Sensorimotor Sub-Stages:
Primary circular reactions (1-4 months) Actions of their own serves as the stimulus to which they respond with the same action. Sucking a thumb or fingers, blow milk bubbles, etc. Secondary circular reactions (4-12 months) Acts that extends out to the environment. Infants may bang something against a crib, push against a toy that makes noise, etc. They may repeat such actions over and over as they learn procedures for making interesting things last. At this point, babies begin to develop object permanence. This is the ability to recognize that, just because they can’t see something doesn’t mean it’s gone. Tertiary circular reactions (12-24 months). This consists of the same “making interesting things last” cycle, except with constant variation. Active experimentation can be seen during meals as children discover new and interesting ways to throw spoons, cups, dishes, iPhones, etc. Around one and a half, children clearly develop mental representation, that is, the ability to hold an image in their mind for a period beyond the immediate experience. |
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Preoperational Stage 2-7 Years Old In this stage, children are able to imagine the future and reflect on the past, although they remain heavily perceptually oriented in the present. With mental representations and the ability to pretend, children in this stage begin to use symbols. A symbol is a thing that represents something else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to be understood as representing a real dog. The use of language is, of course, the prime example, but another good example of symbol use is creative play, where Playdoh can be smashed into disks as cookies, sticks can become snakes (or, sadly, guns), etc. While they are getting better with language and thinking, children in this stage still tend to think about things in very concrete terms. Children at this stage also tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others. Piaget did a study to investigate this phenomenon called the mountains study. Watch the following video that demonstrates this study: Similarly, younger children center on one aspect of any problem or communication at a time. A famous example of this is observing a child’s inability to conserve amounts of things, including solid objects and liquid volume. Here is an example: |
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Concrete Operations Stage 7-11 Years Old Operations refers to logical operations or principles we use when solving problems. In this stage, the child not only uses symbols representationally, but can manipulate those symbols logically. They must still perform these operations within the context of concrete situations. By six or seven, most children develop the ability to conserve number, length, and liquid volume. Conservation refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance. The first video above demonstrates an inability to conserve. By seven or eight years old, children develop conservation of substance, such as knowing that if they had two exact pieces of clay rolled into balls, and then one is smashed or rolled into a snake shape or divided into smaller pieces…the amount of clay has not changed and they are still the same amount. By nine or ten, most children have generally mastered conservation of area. For example, children can correctly explain why laying 4 pieces of paper on the floor with their edges touching, forming a larger rectangle covers the same amount of floor as the four pieces laid out spaced by a couple feet each. Also, children in this stage can easily classify and seriate (sort by order) by observable characteristics. Children draw on their experiences and are not always swayed by what they immediately perceive. Children in this stage also begin to reason inductively, building their own general rules based on a number of related observations. Such reasoning is primarily grounded in concrete, observable examples. Formal operations stage 11+ Years Old (maybe) At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems. Abstract thought emerges, and teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning. Children in this stage begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to the interpretation and understanding of specific information and phenomena. This involves using logical operations and using them in the abstract (hypothetical thinking). It is important to note that research suggests no everybody progresses to this stage of development. People don’t naturally mature into this stage…the characteristics that define this stage must be learned. Some cultures or sub-cultures don’t value such development as much as others. Abstract reasoning is simply not universal. |
5.7 Identify important assumptions of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
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Piaget made three basic assumptions about the stages of human development he defined:
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5.8 Explain why Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development is foundational to constructivism.
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Recall that constructivism is the belief that learning takes place in contexts and that learners form or construct meaning (knowledge) to the information (stimuli) they receive as a function of previous experience and immediate experiences in situations.
Piaget’s work is about as legitimately theoretic as anything defining constructivism. Yes, it can be falsifiable, and there are many instances in the research literature where aspects of his theory are called into question. But in each developmental stage, Piaget considers that a person is striving toward equilibrium. The processes of assimilation (fitting external reality into existing cognitive structures) and accommodation (changing internal structures to provide consistency with external reality) are predicated on constructing knowledge that makes sense, considering previous experiences. This is an internal (mental) process. Note: Piaget believed that cognitive development can only occur only when a person’s experiences in the real world do not match their internal schema. This places the person in a state of disequilibrium or cognitive conflict, resulting in the need to equilibrate through accommodation. This is the mechanism for meaning-making, which is central to constructivist beliefs. The following video is a bit lengthy, but you can hear Piaget talk about this in his own words. Also, the video presents examples of a number of his classic experiments. |
Lev Vygotsky
1896 - 1934
1896 - 1934
5.9 Describe Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory and explain how it helps define constructivism.
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Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that people are actively involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.
Vygotsky’s theory proposes three factors that interact with each other and influence cognitive development and learning: 1. Interpersonal (social) experience
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Interactions with people in the environment (e.g., apprenticeships, collaborations) stimulate developmental processes and foster cognitive growth. All people interacting with each other shape and change the experience based on everybody’s personal experiences. Enactive and vicarious learning (Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory) result in a reorganization of mental structures as a consequence of these interactions.
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2. Cultural–historical
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Learning and development cannot be dissociated from their context. The way that learners interact with their environment (people, objects, institutions etc.) transforms their thinking. The meaning they assign to information is dependent on the cultural and historical context that defines their environments.
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3. Individual factors
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Every person is unique, with their own inherited aptitudes and mental structures that influence and affect development and learning.
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Vygotsky considered interpersonal social interactions as the factor that transforms learning experiences for each individual. The social environment influences cognition through its “tools”—that is, its cultural objects (e.g., iPhones, cars, clothes, etc.) and its language and social institutions (e.g., schools, churches, sports teams etc.). Social interactions help to coordinate all three influences on development. Cognitive change results from using cultural tools in social interactions and from internalizing and mentally transforming these interactions. Human development occurs through the cultural transmission of tools (language, symbols), with language as the most critical tool. This explains how Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is foundational to constructivism and not just an extension of social cognitive theory.
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5.10 Explain the role that the Zone of Proximal Development plays in Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory.
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Central to Vygotsky’s theory of learning is a concept called the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This is the hypothetical “space” between what learners can already do well on their own, and what they cannot do at all without some interaction or support from others. It is in this zone that interactions with adults and peers in the ZPD promote cognitive development. Cognitive change occurs in the ZPD as teacher and learner share cultural tools, and this culturally mediated interaction produces cognitive change when it is internalized in the learner.
This is an important concept in education because it suggests that instructional planning should first focus on determining where individual learners are in relation to their ZPD, and then social interactions should be structured to support learning within each learner’s ZPD. |