Act 2 Introduction
There are many reasons why behaviorism became the dominant theoretical framework for learning during the first half of the 20th century. Principles underlying operant conditioning were directly applicable to human learning, and ignoring what was going on inside the brain during learning was arguably a valuable approach to developing effective and efficient learning systems. For example, World War II necessitated the training of many people to do many different things in a relatively short period of time. In the spirit of high levels of motivation, with the need to not “overthink” or question what many were being asked to learn….the behaviorist paradigm reigned.
However, during this time there were many scientists in the field of psychology who saw learning as a much more complex mental (cognitive) enterprise. The contributions of some important researchers during the behaviorist era helped set the stage for a shift in how psychologists would view learning as well as instruction in the latter half of the 20th century.
Here is an excellent example of one such researcher. In roughly the same time period when Skinner's operant conditioning experiments were getting started, Edward Tolman was also experimenting with rats. In one of his important experiments, Tolman placed rats in a maze without any reinforcement to move in any direction or end up in any location in the maze. In this simplified example, the maze includes three interconnected tunnels accessible from a central area:
After the rats spent a good deal of time exploring the maze, two tunnels were blocked off and a food incentive was placed in a destination location. The rats soon learned that the route to the food went through tunnel #1, and after many trials, the rats would travel the path immediately when placed in the central area:
Tolman then blocked off tunnel #1 and unblocked tunnels #2 and #3:
Based on basic behaviorism, what do you predict was the behavior of the rats in this situation?
Since the behavior of traveling into tunnels #2 or #3 were never reinforced with food, it it reasonable to assume that the rats would randomly pick a tunnel. It wouldn't matter to the unconditioned rats...they would just explore until it hopefully reached food.
But this is not what what Tolman observed. In most cases, the rats immediately ran into tunnel #3...the shortest route to the food.
Why?
Tolman believed that while the rats were exploring the maze before any blocks or incentives, they were actually developing a map in their little rat brains. Once an incentive was placed in the maze, they placed its location in the map...a form of mental learning that did not fit any behaviorist model. Something complex was going on inside the black box of the rats' brains, and he demonstrated it easily with such experiments.
Since the behavior of traveling into tunnels #2 or #3 were never reinforced with food, it it reasonable to assume that the rats would randomly pick a tunnel. It wouldn't matter to the unconditioned rats...they would just explore until it hopefully reached food.
But this is not what what Tolman observed. In most cases, the rats immediately ran into tunnel #3...the shortest route to the food.
Why?
Tolman believed that while the rats were exploring the maze before any blocks or incentives, they were actually developing a map in their little rat brains. Once an incentive was placed in the maze, they placed its location in the map...a form of mental learning that did not fit any behaviorist model. Something complex was going on inside the black box of the rats' brains, and he demonstrated it easily with such experiments.
Another Example...
Years before Tolman's work with rats, a German psychologist named Wolfgang Kohler spent time observing the behavior of chimpanzees. Struck by how intelligent they seemed, Kohler set up a series of experiments to study their problem-solving abilities and behaviors. For example, he placed chimps in situations where a reward (e.g. bananas) were suspended out of reach, and he observed the chimps scanning their environment and sitting quiet, until one chimp sprang into action, stacking crates to reach the bananas.
How might behaviorism account for this type of "insightful" learning in apes?
Here is a good, short video recreating an ape problem-solving scenario. The video also provides actual footage of Kohler's work with apes (Note: this starts at about the one minute mark. Because the footage is from the silent film era, the compiler of the video chose to add a song to soundtrack: Please, Please, Please Let Me Get What I Want by Elefant. A bit annoying, but the video footage is the best I could find.)
Years before Tolman's work with rats, a German psychologist named Wolfgang Kohler spent time observing the behavior of chimpanzees. Struck by how intelligent they seemed, Kohler set up a series of experiments to study their problem-solving abilities and behaviors. For example, he placed chimps in situations where a reward (e.g. bananas) were suspended out of reach, and he observed the chimps scanning their environment and sitting quiet, until one chimp sprang into action, stacking crates to reach the bananas.
How might behaviorism account for this type of "insightful" learning in apes?
Here is a good, short video recreating an ape problem-solving scenario. The video also provides actual footage of Kohler's work with apes (Note: this starts at about the one minute mark. Because the footage is from the silent film era, the compiler of the video chose to add a song to soundtrack: Please, Please, Please Let Me Get What I Want by Elefant. A bit annoying, but the video footage is the best I could find.)
Kohler's work with apes and Tolman's rat experiments represent two ways in which the framework of behaviorism did not help explain or predict learning. These types of studies were foundational in helping psychologist establish a different framework called cognitivism, though it would not formally take shape until the world entered the computer age in the 1950s and 1960s.
In Act 2 of this course, you will learn about the rise of cognitivism as the dominant paradigm for understanding learning in humans. You can view all the specific learning objectives for Act 2 on the course OBJECTIVES page (all the objectives in Part 4).
You likely know quite a bit about this framework because most of the instructional models you learned and implemented in your practice as educators were born from cognitivist approaches. To help emphasize this, your project for Act 2 involves analyzing your own practices as an educator in light of cognitivist learning theory, recognizing specific ways in which you make assumptions about teaching and learning based on cognitivist models of learning such as information process.
In Act 2 of this course, you will learn about the rise of cognitivism as the dominant paradigm for understanding learning in humans. You can view all the specific learning objectives for Act 2 on the course OBJECTIVES page (all the objectives in Part 4).
You likely know quite a bit about this framework because most of the instructional models you learned and implemented in your practice as educators were born from cognitivist approaches. To help emphasize this, your project for Act 2 involves analyzing your own practices as an educator in light of cognitivist learning theory, recognizing specific ways in which you make assumptions about teaching and learning based on cognitivist models of learning such as information process.
Act 2 Assignments
As you complete the following activities, record your notes as they support the Act 2 objectives (the Act 2 note outline is available on the NOTES page).
Once your notes are complete, study them and complete the Act 2 practice exam so you are clear how each objective will be measured. Adjust your study materials accordingly.
Take Exam #2. [Due midnight on Friday, 6/5]
Complete the Act 2 project. [Due midnight on Sunday, 6/7]
As you complete the following activities, record your notes as they support the Act 2 objectives (the Act 2 note outline is available on the NOTES page).
- Read Schunk text CHAPTER 5
- Review the web material for Act 2 (everything except the Social Cognitive Theory page).
- Read Schunk Chapter 4 (pp. 117 - 129)
- Review the web material for Social Cognitive Theory
Once your notes are complete, study them and complete the Act 2 practice exam so you are clear how each objective will be measured. Adjust your study materials accordingly.
Take Exam #2. [Due midnight on Friday, 6/5]
Complete the Act 2 project. [Due midnight on Sunday, 6/7]
If you recall from part of the course "Big Picture", cognitivism is the second learning framework you will learn more about, and its assumptions and constructs overlap somewhat with behaviorism (as well as constructivism, which you will learn more about later).
Of course, Act 2 begins with a summary of the distinctions between Behaviorism and Cognitivism.
Of course, Act 2 begins with a summary of the distinctions between Behaviorism and Cognitivism.